The market
The capital cost required to clean up closed mines worldwide is estimated at over one billion dollars. Cleaning up a single mine in California, closed in the 1960s, required $200 million of public funds to contain problems of leaching, groundwater contamination, and erosion. Although all publicly traded mining companies have taken steps to stabilize and restore the environment, the amount of capital needed to repair mine tailings, acid water contamination, and heavy metal pollution has increased tenfold in recent years as new mining standards have been imposed. If some mining companies were required to cover the full costs under the latest standards, they could experience a significant drop in their stock prices, and some would even be forced into bankruptcy. Mines use either water and gravity to extract valuable minerals or crush rocks into fine particles and then extract the ore using chemicals. Large-scale mining operations, whether open-pit or underground, divert waterways, destroy entire ecosystems, and even villages and communities, to extract the desired ore with high efficiency. Mining operations release acidic water, sulfuric acid (by exposing pyrite to oxygen and water), naturally occurring radioactive materials, and additives such as cyanide. Increasingly, countries are requiring new mining permits to include a site closure plan before operations can begin. The province of Quebec (Canada) goes further, demanding a financial guarantee equal to 100% of the calculated remediation cost. Storing waste in open pits was once an acceptable practice, but like river and underwater dumping, these methods are increasingly under scrutiny, forcing mining companies to reconsider their approach. The release of acidic water is often controlled by the addition of limestone. Tailings are most often stabilized by sequestering contaminants within and around plant roots. This is inexpensive and reduces wind and water erosion that would otherwise expose both humans and the environment. Plant-based remediation makes contaminants less accessible to wildlife and livestock, thus preventing accumulation in the food chain. As the value of the ore increases and mining techniques become more sophisticated, tailings are increasingly reprocessed to recover the ore. This practice has been successfully implemented in Australia.
Innovation
Rising costs and the imposition of strict regulations are forcing the industry to innovate. The conversion of a series of open-pit mines into hydroelectric power plants was explored in Ghana but not pursued. The introduction of algae and bacteria to treat waste was tested, and even fungal treatments were tried. However, none were implemented due to the perceived high cost, uncertainty, and the industry's reluctance to adopt innovations for which it lacks in-house expertise. The sheer volume the mining industry has to manage presents a significant burden for any creative approach. Unfortunately, more and more mine closures are resulting in litigation, with the parties ultimately paying substantial settlements after sometimes decades of protracted legal battles, and legal service providers often winning the majority of the money paid. Tyler Barnes is only a senior at Northwestern High School in Kokomo, Indiana (USA). Inspired by his teacher, Patty Zech, he researched the problems of acid mine drainage, a challenge in his home state with a long history of open-pit mining. An image of the orange water resembled a painting on the wall, but instead of being a work of art with a paintbrush, it was real pollution that kills fish. Mines, as Tyler learned, not only pollute and leave a desert landscape, but they also acidify the water for decades after they close, making aquatic life impossible. Mines in Indiana currently use limestone—also locally sourced—to reduce acidity. The problem is that limestone doesn't solve the full spectrum of problems, since it doesn't remove dissolved iron or copper from the water. The high concentrations of rust pose an irreversible threat to local biodiversity. Even in his first year of school, Tyler wanted to go beyond simply analyzing the problem and began searching for solutions, examining every possible waste product that could address both the acidity issue and absorb the metals. He decided to focus his attention on finding positive answers to a well-known problem. Tyler explored numerous alternatives with little chance of success until he read about the properties of chitosan, an abundant industrial waste product derived from shrimp and crab shells. He pursued his research for four years, often working long hours after school. He traveled as far away as Brazil to collect samples from drainage ditches, and while he could see that the chitosan was doing the job, he couldn't explain why. Tyler then created his own samples of acid mine drainage and was mentored by a middle school chemistry teacher seeking an explanation for his success. Finally, he discovered that the amino group of the chitosan molecule absorbs iron and copper, cleaning the water, while balancing its pH.
The first cash flow
Although Tyler had already been accepted to Indiana University to pursue a degree in biochemistry, he wondered how to put his discovery into practice. He was well aware that chitosan was more expensive than limestone, but as everyone in industry and government knew, limestone didn't improve the chances of aquatic life surviving. He was convinced that legislation would be needed to require mining companies to balance the pH and remove metals. On the other hand, chitosan was a byproduct of natural bodies of water, so he had found a "water for water" solution. In doing so, he advanced in biochemistry, and his presentations on the subject earned him numerous awards at science fairs.
The opportunity
The global market for chitin derivatives like chitosan reached 13,700 tons in 2010 and is projected to reach 21,400 tons in 2015, representing a value of $63 billion. This waste product is a biopolymer with the remarkable property of binding to lipids, fats, and metals. As demand increases due to numerous innovative uses, the recovery of shrimp, lobster, and crab skeletons will improve, creating new opportunities for shrimp farms to diversify their revenue streams. Tyler identified the opportunity that high-quality chitosan can be used in medical, nutraceutical, and food supplements, while lower-quality chitosan could address the immediate need to neutralize pollutants in water. This cascade of material, while simultaneously addressing past problems in a positive, job-creating way, exemplifies the mindset with which the Blue Economy approaches development. The majority of the world's chitosan supply is consumed in the Asia-Pacific region, which accounts for half of global demand. The Japanese market has an abundance of water but a shortage of pure water, leading to increased demand for chitosan as a flocculant. While Tyler's proposal still faces significant hurdles, his focus and clarity, grounded in years of scientific exploration even at a young age, demonstrate that when given the opportunity, young people can indeed shift perspectives on persistent global challenges. The solutions may very well lead to increased demand for chitosan, transforming a waste stream into a revenue stream while simultaneously creating jobs, particularly in regions with a critical need for employment. Therefore, the type of scientific research combined with exploratory problem-solving undertaken by Tyler inspires not only the research and learning of science, but also thinking beyond the obvious and making this possible as entrepreneurs in order to steer society towards sustainability.
